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649
IAEA, Power Reactor Information System [PRIS], IAEA, accessed January 31, 2020, https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/power-reactor-information-system-pris. Prior to 1979, average construction time was 5.8 years in the U.S., and 6.7 years in France. Reactor constructions after 1979 took on average 12.5 years and 14 years, respectively.
650
Gerry Thomas (professor of clinical pathology at Imperial College, London, and founder of the Chernobyl Tissue Bank) in discussion with the author, July 31, 2017.
651
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Vol. II (New York: United Nations, 2011), 149, https://www.unscear.org/unscear/publications.html.
652
“Firefighter fatalities in the United States,” U.S. Fire Administration, accessed January 16, 2020, https://apps.usfa.fema.gov/firefighter-fatalities.
653
“Evaluation of Data on Thyroid Cancer in Regions Affected by the Chernobyl Accident,” United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, https://www.unscear.org/unscear/publications.html, v.
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Elisabeth Cardis and Maureen Hatch, “The Chernobyl Accident – an Epidemiological Perspective,” Clinical Oncology 23, no. 4 (May 2011): 251–60, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clon.2011.01.510.
655
Chernobyl, episode 1, “1:23:45,” directed by Johan Renck, HBO, May 6, 2019.
656
“Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident: An Overview,” World Health Organization, April 2006, https://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/backgrounder/en.
657
“Fact Sheet: Biological Effects of Radiation,” Office of Public Affairs, United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2003, http://akorn.com/documents/pentatate/about_radiation/02_Fact_Sheet_on_Biological_Effects_of_Radiation_NRC.pdf.
658
Richard Pallardy, “Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Deepwater-Horizon-oil-spill.
659
Kate Larsen, “PG&E Receives Maximum Sentence for 2010 San Bruno Explosion,” ABC 7 News, January 26, 2017, https://abc7news.com.
660
Laura Smith, “The deadliest structural failure in history killed 170,000–and China tried to cover it up,” Timeline, August 2, 2017, https://timeline.com. Justin Higginbottom, “230,000 Died in a Dam Collapse That China Kept Secret for Years,” Ozy, February 17, 2019, https://www.ozy.com.
661
“Pedestrian Safety: A Road Safety Manual for Decision-Makers and Practitioners,” United Nations Road Safety Collaboration, https://www.who.int/roadsafety/projects/manuals/pedestrian. “World Statistic,” International Labour Organization, https://www.ilo.org/moscow/areas-of-work/occupational-safety-and-health/WCMS_249278/lang – en/index.htm. “Ambient Air Pollution: Health Impacts,” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/airpollution/ambient/health-impacts. “Global Status Report on Road Safety 2018,” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status/2018.
662
Jemin Desai et al., “Nuclear Deaths,” Environmental Progress, February 2020, https://environmentalprogress.org/nuclear-deaths.
663
Vaclav Smil, Power Density: A Key to Understanding Energy Sources and Uses (New York: The MIT Press, 2015), 149.
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“Ambient (outdoor) air pollution,” World Health Organization, May 2, 2018, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health.
665
Anil Markandya and Paul Wilkinson, “Electricity Generation and Health,” Lancet 370, no. 9591 (2007): 979–990, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7.
666
Pushker Kharecha, “Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power,” Environmental Science & Technology 47, no. 9 (2013): 4889–4895, https://doi.org/10.1021/es3051197.
667
Stephen Jarvis, Olivier Deschenes, and Akshaya Jha, “The Private and External Costs of Germany’s Nuclear Phase-Out” Working Paper 26598, National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), Cambridge, MA, December 2019, https://doi.org/10.3386/w26598.
668
“GDP (Current US$),” World Bank Group, accessed October 15, 2019, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD.
669
Electricity price data for industrial and residential consumers are from Eurostat, 2019. France’s residential price for the first half of 2018 was $.1746 per KWh in comparison to Germany’s residential price of $.2987 per KWh. France’s industrial price for the first half of 2018 was $.1174 per KWh, in comparison to Germany’s, which was $.1967 per KWh. For a comparison of French and German carbon intensities of electricity, see Mark Nelson, “German Electricity Was Nearly 10 Times Dirtier than France’s in 2016,” Environmental Progress, http://environmentalprogress.org/big-news/2017/2/11/german-electricity-was-nearly-10-times-dirtier-than-frances-in-2016.
670
Mark Nelson and Madison Czerwinski, “With Nuclear Instead of Renewables, California and Germany Would Already Have 100 % Clean Electricity,” Environmental Progress, September 11, 2018, http://environmentalprogress.org.
671
Projected Costs of Generating Electricity, 2015 Edition, International Energy Agency, Nuclear Energy Agency, and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2015, https://www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2015/7057-proj-costs-electricity-2015.pdf. The cost of generating electricity is designated as the sum of operations and maintenance, fuel, waste, and carbon costs.
672
Mark Nelson et al., “Power to Decarbonize,” Environmental Progress, 2017, last updated 2019, accessed October 24, 2019, http://environmentalprogress.org/the-complete-case-for-nuclear. Updated in 2019, in both cases using BP Energy Data for electricity production and Bloomberg New Energy Finance data for wind and solar investment volume.
673
U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Disposal of High-Level Nuclear Waste,” GAO, accessed January 31, 2020, https://www.gao.gov/key_issues/disposal_of_highlevel_nuclear_waste/issue_summary.
674
BP Energy Economics, “BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019, 68th Edition,” BP, June 2019, accessed January 16, 2020, https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf. I consider nuclear, hydroelectricity, and renewables minus geothermal/biomass as zeroemission energy sources. In 1995, these consisted of 13 percent of the world’s primary energy consumption; in 2018, they were 15 percent.
675
“Climate Change in Vermont: Emissions and Goals,” State of Vermont, https://climatechange.vermont.gov/climate-pollution-goals. “Title 10: Conservation and Development, Chapter 023, Air Pollution Control,” 10 V.S.A. § 578, passed 2005, amended 2007, Vermont General Assembly, https://legislature.vermont.gov/statutes/section/10/023/00578.
676
Kristin Carlson, “Green Mountain Power Is First Utility to Help Customers Go Off-Grid with New Product Offering,” Green Mountain Power, December 20, 2016, https://greenmountainpower.com/news/green-mountain-power-first-utility-help-customers-go-off-grid-new-product-offering.
677
“ACEEE 2018 State Energy Efficiency Scorecard,” American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, October 4, 2018, https://aceee.org/press/2018/10/aceee-2018-state-energy-efficiency.
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“Vermont Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory Update: Brief, 1990–2015,” Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation Air Quality and Climate Division, June 2018, https://dec.vermont.gov/sites/dec/files/aqc/climate-change/documents/_Vermont_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_Inventory_Update_1990-2015.pdf,3.
