269

График, демонстрирующий рекламные доходы американских газет в период 1950–2015 гг., см. в: Mark J. Perry, “US Newspaper Advertising Revenue: Adjusted for Inflation, 1950 to 2015,” American Enterprise Institute: Carpe Diem, June 16, 2016, http://www.aei.org/pub-lication/thursday-night-links-ю/. Исследование, показывающее, какая доля сетевых рекламных доходов была отнята у медиа и перешла к цифровым посредникам, см. в: PricewaterhouseCoopers, ISBA Programmatic Supply Chain Transparency Study (2020).

270

Anthony Nadler, Matthew Crain, and Joan Donovan, Weaponizing the Digital Influence Machine: The Political Perils of Online Ad Tech (New York: Data & Society, 2018), https://datasociety.net/output/weaponizing-the-digital-influence-machine/; Whitney Phillips, The Oxygen of Amplification: Better Practices for Reporting on Extremists, Antagonists, and Manipulators (New York: Data & Society, 2018), https://datasociety.net/ wp-content/uploads/2018/o5/FULLREPORT_Oxygen_of_Ampli-fication_DS.pdf; Martin Moore, Democracy Hacked: Political Turmoil and Information Warfare in the Digital Age (London: Oneworld, 2018).

271

Philip N. Howard, Lie Machines: How to Save Democracy from Troll Armies, Deceitful Robots, Junk News Operations, and Political Operatives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020); Siva Vaidhyanathan, Anti-Social Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).

272

Bence Kollanyi, Philip N. Howard, and Samuel C. Woolley, “Bots and Automation over Twitter During the Second U. S. Presidential Debate,” COMPROP Data Memo, October 19, 2016, http://politicalbots. org/wp-content/uploads/2016/io/Data-Memo-Second-Presidential-Debate.pdf.

273

Mark Andrejevic, Automated Media (New York: Routledge, 2019), 62.

274

Актуальное отношение между журналистами и ИИ профессионально проанализировано в: Nicholas Diakopolous, Automating the News: How Algorithms Are Rewriting the Media (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).

275

Реформы, предлагаемые мной, помогут большинству других создателей контента находить сетевую аудиторию, в том числе предпринимателям. В этой главе основное внимание уделяется автоматизации медиа.

276

Amanda Taub and Max Fisher, “Where Countries Are Tinderboxes and Facebook Is a Match,” New York Times, April 21, 2018, htt-ps://www. nytimes.com/2018/o4/21/world/asia/facebook-sri-lanka-riots.html; Damian Tambini, “Fake News: Public Policy Responses,” London School of Economics Media Policy Brief No. 20, March 2017, http://eprints.lse.ac.Uk/73015/1/LSE%20MPP%20P0licy%20 Brief%2020%20-%20Fake%20news_final.pdf.

277

Stephan Russ-Mohl, “Bots, Lies and Propaganda: The New Misinformation Economy,” European Journalism Observatory, October 20, 2016, https://en.ejo.ch/latest-stories/bots-lies-and-propaganda-the-new-misinformation-economy; Carole Cadwalladr, “Facebook’s Role in Brexit – and the Threat to Democracy,” TED talk, filmed April 2019, TED2019 Conference, 15:16, https://www.ted.com/talks/ carole_cadwalladr_facebook_s_role_in_brexit_and_the_ threat_to_democracy/transcript?language=en.

278

Alex Shepard, “Facebook Has a Genocide Problem,” New Republic, March 15, 2018, https://newrepublic.com/article/147486/facebook-genocide-problem; Euan McKirdy, “When Facebook becomes ‘The Beast’: Myanmar Activists Say Social Media Aids Genocide,” CNN, April 6, 2018, https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/06/asia/myanmar-facebook-social-media-genocide-intl/index.html. Критику участия интернет-гигантов в разжигании ненависти см. в: Mary Ann Franks, The Cult of the Constitution (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2019).

279

Michael Н. Keller, “The Flourishing Business of Fake YouTube Views,” New York Times, August 11, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/interac-tive/2018/08/n/technology/youtube-fake-view-sellers.html.

280

Zeynep Tufekci, “Facebook’s Ad Scandal Isn’t a ‘Fail,’ It’s a Feature,” New York Times, September 23, 2017, https://www.nytimes. com/2 017/09/2 3/opinion/sunday/faceb 00k-ad-scandal.html; Zeynep Tufekci, “YouTube, the Great Radicalizer,” New York Times, March 10, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/o3/1o/opinion/sun-day/youtube-politics-radical.html; Siva Vaidhyanathan, The Goog-lization of Everything {and Why We Should Worry) (Berkeley: University of Cal fornia Press, 2011); Siva Vaidhyanathan, Antisocial Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).

281

Evelyn Douek, “Facebook’s ‘Oversight Board’: Move Fast with Stable Infrastructure and Humility,” North Carolina Journal of Law & Technology 21 (2019): 1-78.

282

Frank Pasquale, “Platform Neutrality: Enhancing Freedom of Expression in Spheres of Private Power,” Theoretical Inquiries in Law 17 (2017): 480, 487. Критику этой ситуации см. в: Olivier Sylvain, “Intermediary Design Duties,” Connecticut Law Review 50 (2018): 203–278; Ari Ezra Waldman, “Durkheim’s Internet: Social and Political Theory in Online Society,” New York University Journal of Law and Liberty 7 (2013): 345,373–379.

283

Cm.: Carole Cadwalladr, “How to Bump Holocaust Deniers off Google’s Top Spot?” Guardian, December 17,2016, https://www.theguardian.com/ technology/20i6/dec/17/holocaust-deniers-google-search-top-spot.

284

Sydney Schaedel, “Did the Pope Endorse Trump?” FactCheck.org, October 24, 2016, http://www.factcheck.org/2016/1o/did-the-pope-endorse-trump/; Dan Evon, “Spirit Cooking,” Snopes, November 5, 2016, http://www.snopes.com/john-podesta-spirit-cooking/.

285

Ian Bogost and Alexis C. Madrigal, “How Facebook Works for Trump,” Atlantic, April 18, 2020, https://www.theatlantic.com/tech-nology/archive/2020/04/how-facebooks-ad-technology-helps-trump-win/606403/. For YouTube analysis by engineer Guillaume Chaslot, see Paul Lewis, “ ‘Fiction is Outperforming Reality’: How YouTube’s Algorithm Distorts Truth,” Guardian, February 2, 2018, https://www. theguardian. com/technology/2 o18/feb/o2/ how-youtubes-algorithm-distorts-truth.

286

Kyle Chayka, “Facebook and Google Make Lies As Pretty As Truth,” Verge, December 6, 2016, http://www.theverge.c0m/2016/12/6/ 13 850230/fake-news-sites-google-search-facebook-instant-articles; Janet Guyon, “In Sri Lanka, Facebook Is Like the Ministry of Truth,” Quartz, April 22, 2018, https://qz.com/1259010/ how-facebook-rumors-led-to-real-life-violence-in-sri-lanka/.

287

Eric Lubbers, “There Is No Such Thing as the Denver Guardian, Despite that Facebook Post You Just Saw,” Denver Post, November 5, 2016, http://www.denverp0st.com/2016/11/05/there-is-no-such-thing-as-the-denver-guardian/.

288

Brett Molina, “Report: Fake Election News Performed Better Than Real News on Facebook,” USA Today, November 17, 2016, http://www. usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2016/11/17/report-fake-election-news-performed-better-than-real-news-facebook/94028370/.

289

Timothy B. Lee, “The Top 20 Fake News Stories Outperformed Real News at the End of the 2016 Campaign,” Vox, November 16, 2016, https://www.vox.com/new-money/2016/11/16/1365984o/facebook-fake-news-chart.

290

Joel Winston, “How the Trump Campaign Built an Identity Database and Used Facebook Ads to Win the Election,” Medium, November 18, 2016, https://medium.com/startup-grind/how-the-trump-campaign-built-an-identity-database-and-used-facebook-ads-to-win-the-election-4ff7d24269ac#.4oaz94q5a.

291

Paul Lewis, “ ‘Utterly Horrifying’: Ex-Facebook Insider Says Covert Data Harvesting Was Routine,” Guardian, March 20, 2018, https://www. theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/20/facebook-data-cambridge-analytica-sandy-parakilas; Nicol Perlroth and Sheera Frenkel, “The End for Facebook’s Security Evangelist,” New York Times, March 20, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/o3/20/technology/ alex-stamos-facebook-security.html.

292

Zeynep Tufekci, “Mark Zuckerberg Is in Denial,” New York Times, November 15, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/15/opinion/mark-zuckerberg-is-in-denial.html?_r=2.

293